Muhammad and the Bible

MUHAMMAD AND THE BIBLE

Two Jewish leaders came to Muhammad and asked if he believed that the Torah they had in their possession was the truth from God...

"Rafi b. Haritha and Sallam b. Mishkam and Malik b. al-Sayf and Rafi b. Huraymila came to him [Muhammad] and said: "Do you not allege that you follow the religion of Abraham and believe in the Torah which we have and testify that it is the truth from God?" He replied, "Certainly, ..."

The above quote is from Guillaume's "The Life of Muhammad", which is basically a translation of Ibn Ishaq's "Sirat Rasulallah", the most authentic extant biography of Muhammad, page 268. [1]

When the Jews confronted him with the question as to whether or not their Torah was "the truth from God", Muhammad said, "Certainly".

This dialog occurred in Yathrib (Medina), around the year 624 A.D.

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OUTLINE

1 THE BIBLE IS TRUE ACCORDING TO ISLAM

A Introduction

B Islamic sources

C Quran stating that Bible is true

D Support from the Hadith

E Support from the Sira

F Conclusion

2 THE BIBLE IN THE HIJAZ IS BASICALLY THE SAME ONE WE HAVE TODAY

A Introduction

B Historical Analysis: Formation of the Canon

C Geographical Analysis: Availability of the Canon

D Conclusion

3 MUSLIM OBJECTIONS

A Questionable Quranic verses

B Early Muslims and the charge of corruption

C Why the charge of corruption today?

D Muslim Misconceptions

E Conclusion

4 SUMMARY

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PART 1 THE BIBLE IS TRUE ACCORDING TO ISLAM

A. INTRODUCTION

Time and time again, Muhammad testified to the integrity of the Scriptures of the Jews and Christians. He affirmed and confirmed them as the Word of God. Since Muslims believe the Quran to be the Word of God, then it is actually their God - "Allah" - testifying to the integrity and truthfulness of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures existing in Muhammad's lifetime.

There are about 12 verses in the Quran that specifically mention the Gospel. The Arabic word for Gospel is "Injil". Additionally a large number of other Quranic verses testify to the truth of the Gospel. Muhammad, as a self declared prophet, supported those Scriptures because he believed they were God's word as he believed his Quran was God's word.

In testifying to their integrity Muhammad unwittingly undercut his own credibility. Muhammad was unaware of the full extent of those Scripture's teachings and this ignorance allowed him to make contradictory statements because his words and teachings, i.e. the Quran, contradicted these Scriptures. Today, we recognize that God would not send a confused or ignorant man who contradicted himself and His word.

Many Muslims today say the Bible is corrupted. But there is nothing in the Quran that supports this. There is not one word in the Quran that teaches that the Scriptures of the Jews and Christians have been perverted by man. Instead, the opposite is true. The Quran supports the Bible.

Isn't it interesting that the Muslims' Quran has nothing to say about the corruption of the Scriptures of the largest religion on earth? During Muhammad's time Christian influence was known in Mecca. There were Jewish and Christian settlements in the Hijaz, and Christianity ringed the Saudi peninsula. Yet not one word is spoken by "Allah" concerning the Scriptures of their faith and not one word on the corruption of His previous Word.

The New Testament contains the stories of Jesus identifying Himself as the Son of God, Jesus predicting His crucifixion, death, and resurrection, Jesus calling God "Father". Jesus' teachings are contradicted by Muhammad in the Quran time and time again. Further, the Quran contradicts even the Old Testament stories related to such Biblical figures as Gideon, Saul, David, and Noah. Why didn't Islam's "Allah" speak up on corruption if these Scriptures were inaccurate of false? These themes are fundamental, why would the Muslims' god fail to address their corruption?

If such a corruption had actually taken place, wouldn't "Allah" have revealed it in the Quran? The Quran is full of vague statements, misquoted biblical stories, myths from pagan, Jewish, and Christian backgrounds, yet "Allah" has nothing to say about the corruption of His previous word. How could such an omission occur? One has to wonder who Muhammad's "Allah" really was. He certainly didn't appear to be the "All Knowing", or at least, if he knew, he wasn't telling.

Or was it that "Allah" didn't know because Muhammad didn't know?

Jesus taught that false prophets would come into the world and mislead many.

There are passages from the Quran, Hadith, and Sira, that deal with this topic. I will present and discuss a number of them.

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B. ISLAMIC SOURCES

The primary source of Islam is the Quran. It is considered to be God's very words. In general Muslims believe that the angel Gabriel, heard God's words and then repeated them to Muhammad. Muhammad than spoke what Gabriel told him as the Quran. I use several translations in this article. Primarily N.J. Dawood's [2], Yusef Ali's [3], and Arberry's [4].

The second most authoritative set of sources in Islam are the "Hadith". Hadith are Muhammad's sayings on particular issues, or anecdotes mostly related to Muhammad's life. Various Muslim scholars compiled their sets of Hadith some two to three hundred years after Muhammad's death. In many cases they recorded what people had told them they had learned from older Muslims, who had learned from earlier Muslims, who had learned from earlier Muslims, etc. This sequence of transmission is known as an "isnaad" or chain of transmitters. Memorization and oral transmission were the primary method used to transmit Hadith from one generation to the next. "Sahih" Hadith are the most "authentic" Hadith. Muslim scholars use the Hadith to help establish the "Sunnah" or lifestyle that Muslims are to live by. These scholars also judge the validity of the Hadith based upon the reputation of people in the "isnaad" of the Hadith.

I will quote primarily from Sahih Bukhari translated by Muhsin Khan [5]. There are several collections up on the internet.

Another important source of biographical information about Muhammad and early Islam are the Sira. I quote from Ibn Ishaq's "Sirat Rasulallah", translated by A. Guillaume as "The Life of Muhammad", which is regarded as the most authentic extant biography of Muhammad, and Ibn Sa'd's "Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir", ("Book of the Major Classes" - biographical information about Muhammad and his primary companions), translated by S. Moinul Haq [6]. The Sira are not regarded as highly as the Hadith.

NOTES:

1) For many important Quranic passages I provide quotes from both Yusef Ali's and N.J. Dawood's translations of the Quran. I think it leads to better understanding of the Quran to compare several translations if you cannot read it in Arabic. I have changed some of Ali's archaic words and spelling. I have also not quoted some verses in full because the material was not relevant and for length's sake.

2) Words in [ ] type brackets are mine.

3) The term "People of the Book" refers specifically to Jews or Christians, or both Jews and Christians. At times the Quran is not clear. Various Muslim scholars cannot agree on who is being addressed in various portions of the Quran.

4) The term "Hijaz" refers to the center - western part of the Arabian Peninsula. This is where Mecca is and where Muhammad grew up and lived.

5) With their permission, I have borrowed portions of writings from three other Christian writers: from Dr. William Campbell's book, "The Quran and the Bible", [7] and from articles written by Sam Shamoun [8], and from John Gilchrist's book, "The Christian Witness to the Muslim [9]. Their works can be found at:

http://answering-islam.org

http://answering-islam.org/Shamoun/aboutbible.htm

http://answering-islam.org/Campbell/

I copied their work because I felt that it effectively addressed the issues and there was no reason for me to re-write what they have already articulated. I have folded their work into sections of this series of articles.

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C. THE QURAN STATES THAT THE BIBLE IS TRUE

VERSES SHOWING THE TORAH TO BE TRUE AT THE TIME OF JESUS

To begin with, it must be established that both the Torah and Gospel existed and were true in Muhammad's time. So, to begin, I will start with Muhammad saying that when Jesus lived, Jesus testified to the integrity of the Torah, i.e., the canon of Jewish Scripture.

Ali - Quran 3:48 - 50

48. "And Allah will teach him the Book and Wisdom the Law and the Gospel.

49. "And (appoint him) an Apostle to the Children of Israel (with this message):

I have come to you with a sign from your Lord ...

50. "(I have come to you) to attest the Law which was before me and to make

lawful to you part of what was (before) forbidden to you; I have come to you

with a Sign from your Lord. So fear Allah and obey me.

Dawood - Quran 3:48 - 50

48. He [Allah] will instruct him [Jesus] in the Scriptures and in wisdom, in the Torah and in the Gospel

49. and send him forth as an apostle to the Israelites. He will say: "I bring you a sign from your Lord". ...

50. "I come to confirm the Torah which preceded me and to make lawful to you some of the things you are forbidden. I bring you a sign from your Lord: therefore fear God and obey me."

Ali - Quran 5:46, 47

And in their footsteps We sent Jesus the son of Mary confirming the law that had come before him: We sent him the Gospel: therein was guidance and light and confirmation of the law that had come before him: a guidance and an admonition to those who fear Allah.

47. Let the people of the Gospel Judge by what Allah has revealed therein. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what Allah has revealed they are (no better than) those who rebel.

Dawood - Quran 5:46, 47

After them we sent forth Jesus, the son of Mary, confirming the Torah already revealed, and gave him the Gospel, in which there is guidance and light, corroborating what as revealed before it in the torah, a guide and admonition to the righteous.

47. Therefore let those who follow the Gospel judge according to what God has revealed therein. Evil-doers are those that do not judge according to God's revelations.

Ali - Quran 61:6

And remember Jesus the son of Mary said: "O Children of Israel! I am the apostle of Allah (sent) to you confirming the Law (which came) before me...

Dawood - Quran 61:6

And of Jesus the son of Mary, who said to the Israelites: "I am sent forth to you from God to confirm the Torah already revealed,..."

SECTION SUMMARY

The above verses show the Torah was true during Christ's lifetime (the first century) because Jesus told the Jews that He was confirming the Law. "I am sent forth to you from God to confirm the Torah already revealed,..."

There was no word of "corruption" from Jesus to the Jews concerning their Scripture. There was no word from Jesus on how the Torah had been perverted. Instead, we find that Jesus confirming the Torah, i.e. the Jewish books of Scripture. And today, we virtually have the same Jewish Canon that existed in Jesus' time. Therefore, Muhammad, in the Quran, stated that the Torah in Christ's time was the valid Word of God.

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VERSES SHOWING THAT THE TORAH AND THE GOSPEL WERE TRUE AND UNCHANGED AT THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD

Now to establish that Muhammad believed that both the Torah and Gospel that existed in his time were the Word of God.

Ali - 29:46

And dispute ye not with the People of the Book, except with means better (then mere disputation), unless it be with those of them who inflict wrong (and injury); But say, "We believe in the Revelation which has come down to us and in that which came down to you; Our God and your God is One...

Dawood - 29:46

Be courteous when you argue with People of the Book except with those among them who do evil. Say: "We believe in that which is revealed to us and which was revealed to you. Our God and your God is one.

Ali - 35:31

That which We have revealed to you of the Book is the Truth confirming what was (revealed) before it: for Allah is assuredly with respect to his servants well acquainted and fully-Observant.

Dawood - 35:31

What We have revealed to you in the Book is the truth confirming previous Scriptures. God knows and observes His servants.

Ali - 10:37

This Qur'an is not such as can be produced by other than Allah; on the contrary it is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before it and a fuller explanation of the Book wherein there is no doubt from the Lord of the Worlds.

Dawood - 10:37

This Koran could not have been devised by any but by God. It confirms what went before it and fully explains the Scriptures. It is beyond doubt from the Lord of the universe.

Ali - 12:111

There is in their stories instruction for men endued with understanding. It is not a tale invented but a confirmation of what went before it a detailed exposition of all things and a Guide and a Mercy to any such as believe.

Dawood - 12:111

There annals point a moral to men of understanding. This is no invented tale but a confirmation of previous Scriptures, an explanation of all things, a guide and a blessing to true believers.

Ali - 3:3

It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step) in truth the Book confirming what went before it; and He sent down Law (Of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) before this as a guide to mankind and He sent down the Criterion (of judgment between right and wrong).

Dawood - 3:3

He has revealed to you the Book with the Truth, confirming the scriptures which preceded it; for He has already revealed the Torah and the Gospel for the guidance of mankind, and the distinction of right and wrong.

Ali - 5:46 - 48

46. And in their footsteps We sent Jesus the son of Mary confirming the law that had come before him: We sent him the Gospel: therein was guidance and light and confirmation of the law that had come before him: a guidance and an admonition to those who fear Allah.

47. Let the people of the Gospel Judge by what Allah has revealed therein. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what Allah has revealed they are (no better than) those who rebel.

48. To thee We sent the Scripture in truth confirming the scripture that came before it and guarding it in safety....

Dawood - 5:46 - 48

46. After them we sent forth Jesus, the son of Mary, confirming the Torah already revealed, and gave him the Gospel, in which there is guidance and light, corroborating what was revealed before it in the Torah, a guide and an admonition to the righteous. Therefore let those who follow the Gospel judge according to what God has revealed therein. Evil doers are those who do not judge according to God's revelations. And to you we have revealed the Book with the truth. It confirms the Scriptures which came before it and stands as a guardian over them.

Ali - 5:66

If only they had stood fast by the Law the Gospel and all the revelation that was sent to them from their Lord they would have enjoyed happiness from every side. There is from among them a party on the right course; but many of them follow a course that is evil.

Dawood - 5:66

If they observe the Torah and the Gospel and what is revealed to them from their Lord, they shall enjoy abundance from above and from beneath.

NOTE: The root word of "confirm", or "confirming" as used in 10:37, 12:111, 3:3, 5:46, 35:31 in Quranic Arabic is "Saddaqa". It means to "confirm, to give credence, to believe, to accept as true, confirmation, accepting as true, belief, confirming, establishing as true". When Muhammad used this word, he meant that he believed that the Bible was the Word of God. Muhammad confirmed the Bible as the Word of God.

This same root is used in many places regarding truth. For example,

39:33 "And he who brings the truth, and he who confirms it - such are the men who do right."

Below are excerpts from Quranic verses using a conjugation of "Saddaqa". Note how the context of the word is uniform in definition.

2:41 "that I have sent down, confirming that which is with you"

2:89 "a Book from God, confirming what was with them"

2:91 "it is the truth confirming what is with them"

2:97 "he it was that brought it down upon they heart by the leave of God, confirming what was before it"

2:101 "when there has come to them a Messenger from God confirming what was with them"

3:3 "He has sent down upon thee the Book with the truth, confirming what was before it"

3:39 "God give thee good tidings of John, who shall confirm"

3:50 "likewise confirming the truth of the Torah that is before me"

3:81 "then there shall come to you a Messenger confirming what is with you"

4:47 "believe in what We have sent down, confirming what is with you"

5:46 "We sent... Jesus son of Mary, confirming the Torah before him"

5:46 "wherein is guidance and light, and confirming the Torah before it"

5:48 "We have sent down to thee the Book with the truth, confirming the Book that was before it"

6:92 "a Book We have sent down, blessed and confirming that which was before it"

35:31 "that We have revealed to thee of the Book is the truth, confirming what is before it"

37:52 "are you a confirmer?"

46:12 "this is a Book, confirming in the Arabic tongue"

46:30 "we have heard a Book that was sent down after Moses, confirming what was before it"

61:6 "Israel, I am indeed the Messenger of God to you, confirming the Torah"

It is obvious from the sum of these verses that Muhammad truly believed the Bible to be God's word. Over and over again, he "confirmed" the Bible. There is no mention of a "partial" confirmation. There is no statement that says, "confirms only that which I agree with". Instead, Muhammad addressed the Scriptures of the People of the Book and he confirmed its integrity, truthfulness, and accuracy.

SECTION SUMMARY

The above verses prove that Muhammad confirmed the existence and integrity of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures. "If they observe the Torah and the Gospel and what is revealed to them from their Lord. "Therefore let those who follow the Gospel judge according to what God has revealed therein", are two verses that prove that both the Torah and Gospel that the people of the Book held were God's word in Muhammad's viewpoint.

Muhammad's Quran testified to the validity of those Scriptures that existed during his time. He did not speak one word of their corruption. It was Muhammad's ignorance of the actual teachings of those Scriptures that allowed him to contradict their truths.

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VERSES WHERE MUHAMMAD APPEALS TO THE TORAH AND OR THE GOSPEL.

Ali - 10:94

If you were in doubt as to what We have revealed unto you then ask those who have been reading the Book from before you...

Dawood - 10:94

If you doubt what We have revealed to you [Muhammad], Ask those who have read the Scriptures before you.

Ali - 16:43, 44

43. And before thee also the apostles We sent were but men to whom We granted inspiration: if ye realize this not ask of those who possess the Message.

44. (We sent them) with Clear Signs and Books of dark prophecies; and We have sent down unto thee (also) the Message; that thou may explain clearly to men what is sent for them and that they may give thought.

Dawood - 16:43, 44

The apostles We sent before you were but men whom we inspired with revelations and with Scriptures. Ask the People of the Book, if you know not. To you we have revealed the Admonition, so that you may proclaim to men what was sent down for them, and that they may give thought.

Ali - 2:113

The Jews say: "The Christians have naught (to stand) upon"; and the Christians say: "The Jews have naught (to stand) upon." Yet they (profess to) study the (same) Book....

Dawood - 2:113

The Jews say the Christians are misguided, and the Christians say it is the Jews who are misguided. Yet they both read the Scriptures...

Ali - 5:68

68. Say: "O People of the Book! you have no ground to stand upon unless you stand fast by the Law the Gospel and all the revelation that has come to you from your Lord."...

Dawood - 5:68 - 69

Say: "People of the Book, you will attain nothing until you observe the Torah and the Gospel and that which is revealed to you from your Lord"...

SECTION SUMMARY

Again we read that Muhammad testified to the Christian's and Jew's Scripture's integrity. "People of the Book, you will attain nothing until you observe the Torah and the Gospel", and "If you doubt what We have revealed to you, Ask those who have read the Scriptures before you" show that Muhammad believed that the Jews and Christians had a book of truth. In fact, "Allah" goes so far as to urge Muhammad to ask the Jews and Christians about the validity of his message. Now, if they were corrupted, God would not instruct Muhammad to ask people who study a corrupted book about the validity of his message.

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CONCLUSION

The Quran clearly testifies that the Scriptures of the People of the Book, i.e., the Old and New Testaments, are the uncorrupted Word of God. Below is a review of Muhammad's words in the Quran that present this.

1) 3:50 - "I come to confirm the Torah which preceded me..."

2) 5:46 - "After them we sent forth Jesus, the son of Mary, confirming the Torah already revealed

3) 35:31 - "What We have revealed to you in the Book is the truth confirming previous Scriptures. God knows and observes His servants.

4) 5:46 - 48 "After them we sent forth Jesus, the son of Mary, confirming the Torah already revealed, and gave him the Gospel, in which there is guidance and light, corroborating what was revealed before it in the Torah, a guide and an admonition to the righteous. Therefore let those who follow the Gospel judge according to what God has revealed therein.

5) 5:66 - "If they observe the Torah and the Gospel..."

6) 10::94 - "If you doubt what We have revealed to you [Muhammad], Ask those who have read the Scriptures before you."

7) 2:113 - "The Jews say the Christians are misguided, and the Christians say it is the Jews who are misguided. Yet they both read the Scriptures..."

CONFIRM, CONFIRM, CONFIRM.

CORROBORATING, JUDGING, OBSERVING ASKING, READING.

Muhammad believed in the truths of the Bible. But he did not know what the Bible taught. His ignorance led him to make statements that displayed his lack of knowledge. His self-contradictions prove he was not a prophet of God.

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D. SUPPORT FROM THE HADITH

There are also several Hadith that agree with the Quran in supporting the truthfulness of the Bible. Here are a few of those Hadith.

Ibn Abbas on the corruption of Scripture.

Ibn Abbas was Muhammad's relative. He was one of a special group of Muslims known as the "Companions". He is regarded as one of the great scholars in Islamic History.

A traditional statement (Hadith) of his is presented below. It is taken from Sahih Bukhari's collection of Hadith, volume 9, as a footnote between 642, and 643. This note is a comment on the Quran 4:46 and 85:21, 22

"They corrupt the word" means "they alter or change its meaning." Yet no one is able to change even a single word from any Book of God. The meaning is that they interpret the word wrongly. [... and he continues to speak about how the Qur'an is preserved ...]

This is the commentary of Abdullah Ibn Abbas, one of the Sahaba (companions) and Mohammed's cousin. His opinions, because he is a Sahabi (companion) are held to be above the opinions and commentaries of all other Sheikhs who are not Sahaba. Since Ibn Abbas' above reference to "They corrupt the word" quotes part of Sura 4:46, it is not only a commentary on Sura 85:22, but also on the meaning of the Quranic charge against the Jews of corrupting the scriptures. This strongly confirms the results of various investigations of the passages in the Qur'an that speak about the earlier scriptures and their textual integrity and continuing authority.

Bukhari 4.829

Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Umar:

The Jews came to Allah's Apostle and told him that a man and a woman from amongst them had committed illegal sexual intercourse. Allah's Apostle said to them, "What do you find in the Torah (old Testament) about the legal punishment of Ar-Rajm (stoning)?" They replied, (But) we announce their crime and lash them." Abdullah bin Salam said, "You are telling a lie; Torah contains the order of Rajm." They brought and opened the Torah and one of them solaced his hand on the Verse of Rajm and read the verses preceding and following it. Abdullah bin Salam said to him, "Lift your hand." When he lifted his hand, the Verse of Rajm was written there. They said, "Muhammad has told the truth; the Torah has the Verse of Rajm. The Prophet then gave the order that both of them should be stoned to death. ('Abdullah bin 'Umar said, "I saw the man leaning over the woman to shelter her from the stones."

The above Hadith confirms that the Torah existed during Muhammad's time and that he had confidence in it. There was no worry about corruption. Instead, Muhammad chose to use it as a credible source.

Bukhari 6.12

Narrated Abu Huraira:

The people of the Scripture (Jews) used to recite the Torah in Hebrew and they used to explain it in Arabic to the Muslims. On that Allah's Apostle said, "Do not believe the people of the Scripture or disbelieve them, but say:-- "We believe in Allah and what is revealed to us." (2.136)

Here again the Torah was being recited and taught in Arabic, and in public. When Muhammad addressed this, he did not say anything about corruption. He had doubts about whether or not the Jews were being honest in teaching the truth of what they were interpreting.

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E. SUPPORT FROM THE SIRA

As was previously quoted at the start of this paper, the Sira also provide proof that Muhammad believed that the Scriptures of the People of the Book were truth from God. This first one was already quoted at the beginning of this article.

Two Jewish leaders came to Muhammad and asked if he believed that the Torah they had in their possession was the truth from God.

1) There was a controversy concerning the punishment of two Jews who had committed adultery in Medina. Muhammad was brought into the controversy. The end result was that Muhammad ordered the pair to be stoned. Following his order, an important detail is recorded: (from Ibn Ishaq, page 267)

"Salh b. Kaisan from Nafi freedman of Abdullah b. Umar from Abdullah b. Umar, told me: When the apostle gave judgment about them he asked for a Torah. A rabbi sat there reading it having put his hand over the verse of stoning. Abdullah b. Salam struck the rabbi's hand, saying, "this, O prophet of God, is the verse of stoning which he refused to read to you." ............ The apostle said; "I am the first to revive the order from God and His book and to practice it." They were duly stoned and Abdullah b. Umar said, "I was among those that stoned them."

From three sources of Islam, the Quran, Hadith, and Sira, evidence has been produced that establish that Muhammad believed the Bible to be the Word of God. There is no word of corruption of these Scriptures, there is only confirmation that the Bible is God's truth.

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F. CONCLUSION

Documented evidence has been presented showing all sources of Islam (the Quran, the Hadith, and the Sira) teach that the Bible is the Word of God. For a Muslim to deny that the truths that the Bible teaches equates to denying Muhammad's teachings. Clearly, Muhammad fully believed the Bible to be God's word.

It now remains to be established what those Scriptures were.

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2 THE BIBLE IN THE HIJAZ IS BASICALLY THE SAME ONE WE HAVE TODAY

2. WHAT SCRIPTURES WERE AVAILABLE IN THE HIJAZ?

It has already been established that during Muhammad's lifetime the Jews and Christians in the Hijaz possessed Scripture that Muhammad considered to be God's word. Since Muhammad testified to its integrity, which Scriptures was he referring to? And, are those Scriptures equivalent to what we possess today? If they are not basically the same, i.e. if they do not teach the same doctrines that our Bible of today teaches, then Muhammad may be justified for his remarks.

So, what Scriptures were they and where did they come from?

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GENERAL INFORMATION

Concerning the "Gospel", F. F. Bruce writes in "The Canon of Scripture" [10], page 124:

"Before the term "Gospel", (Greek 'evangelion) came to be given to any single one of the four gospels (or to one of the many other works of the same literary genre), it meant (1) the good news of the kingdom of God preached by Jesus, (2) the good news about Jesus preached by his followers after the first Easter and Pentecost, (3) the written record of the good news current in a particular locality, (4) the four fold gospel."

Bruce also notes (p. 129) that:

"The earliest surviving codex which still contains portions of all four gospels is "P45" in the Chester Beatty collection, from the early third century [early 200s]. It contains Acts as well as the fourfold gospel - an exceptional collocation, for in it the early textual history of the New Testament Acts was more often included in a codex with the catholi